Научная электронная библиотека
Монографии, изданные в издательстве Российской Академии Естествознания
Understanding Theories of Intelligence
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes ‘intelligence.’ Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents. The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
Charles Spearman – General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone – Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a different theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone’s theory focused on seven different “primary mental abilities”. The abilities that he described were:
- Verbal comprehension
- Reasoning
- Perceptual speed
- Numerical ability
- Word fluency
- Associative memory
- Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner – Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people’s abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
- Visual-spatial Intelligence
- Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
- Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
- Logical-mathematical Intelligence
- Interpersonal Intelligence
- Musical Intelligence
- Intra personal Intelligence
- Naturalistic Intelligence
Robert Sternberg – Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to one’s life”. While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner’s intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as ‘successful intelligence,’ which is comprised of three different factors:
- Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.
- Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.
- Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
What Factors Determine Intelligence?
In addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelligence, psychologists have spent a great amount of time and energy debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The debate focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is more important -nature or nurture?
Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in determining intelligence. It now becomes matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each factor has.
First, it is important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how inherited genes are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease.
Evidence of genetic influences:
- Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ’s are more similar than those of fraternal twins (Promin & Spinath, 2004).
- Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ’s that are more similar than those of adopted children raised together in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).
Evidence of environmental influences:
- Identical twins reared apart have IQ’s that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).
- School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001).
- Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher on IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed (Reinberg, 2008).